Perceptions And Attitudes Of Tourism Students Psychology Essay

Recognitions And Attitudes Of Tourism Students Psychology Essay The apparent idea of an industry is a key factor that decides the appeal of an industry. Numerous examinations have anticipated a two-side picture of the travel industry. One was a picture of marvelousness, reflected in parts of the work, for example, partner with individuals, the chance to travel, utilizing unknown dialects and differing work undertakings (Szivas, Riley, Airey, 2003). The other was depicting a negative picture whereby occupations were seen as low status and low talented (Szivas Riley, 1999). Understudies familiarity with the fundamental highlights of the travel industry employments, for example, low compensation and unsociable working hours, may apply a negative impact on their social goal, and power them to rashly leave the business (Parsons Care, 1991). Introduction to the business through down to earth work experience help understudies to increase a superior comprehension of the travel industry. They could see the points of interest and inadequacies of the travel industry professions and get a more clear image of what they preferred or disdained about the travel industry employments. Thusly, improving their vocation dynamic procedure. MORE!!! 2.2 Perceptions and mentalities of the travel industry understudies 2.2.1 Tourism program It is beneficial and coherent to right off the bat, fathom understudies discernments and perspectives towards picking the travel industry program before endeavoring to reveal insight into their mentalities towards a travel industry vocation. Table 1 there, speaks to the investigations of different creators concerning the perspectives and perspectives on understudies vis-Ã -vis the determination of the travel industry programs, in a summed up structure. 2.2.2 Tourism as a lifelong decision Throughout the years, numerous examinations have been directed and much consideration have been granted to comprehend the recognitions and mentalities of youngsters or those people who are conceivably prone to seek after a vocation in cordiality workforce later on. Table 2 is a summed up adaptation of the various investigations completed. 2.2.3 The idea of Career Intention and Choices Walton and Mallon (2001) remarked that vocations were viewed as picked callings specifically zones or sign of profession decisions. These terms are proper as they identify with understudies level of vulnerability over vocation aim, decision and pledge to a future profession. At the end of the day, settling on a profession decision through seeking after the suitable program of studies might be an element of conduct expectation. A hypothesis set forward by Ginzberg (1951) suggested that a definitive choice with respect to profession decision isn't reached at a solitary snapshot of time, yet through a progression of choices assumed control over a time of numerous years as a feature of the procedure of mental and physical development. One phase which fits this investigation is the speculative period whereby, the youthful grown-up at the college level is consistently widening their thought and comprehension of the components hidden their rising profession decisions. From the start, their advantage fills in as the major (frequently the sole) reason for their decision. In any case, over the long haul, new components intercede, either inward or outside and the understudies become mindful that their advantages have changed or new ones have developed. To be sure, regularly before entering the college they need to settle on a specific vocation decision bolstered by the determination of a proper program of study, in addition to there is pressure in light of friends, parental concern, develop intrigue and different powers. In the long run, it is during their senior college level that the understudies may rethink their decisions, or bolster their underlying vocation choices. In the sensible period, a decision is made with the aim of acknowledging it. 2.2 The Theory of Planned Behavior Ajzen built up the Theory of Planned Behavior in 1991 as an augmentation of Ajzen and Fishbeins 1975 Theory of Reasoned Action. The TPB has four segments: perspectives (for example the people constructive or pessimistic sentiments about playing out a conduct), emotional standard (for example the people impression of whether individuals imperative to the individual figure the conduct ought to be performed), seen social control (for example The people recognition on the self aptitudes and capacity of playing out a conduct) and social expectation (for example a people availability to play out a given conduct) Ajzen expressed that for nonhabituaI practices that are handily executed by nearly everybody without extraordinary conditions, the hypothesis of contemplated activity was sufficient. At the point when practices are progressively hard to execute, and when an individual needs to assume responsibility for required assets so as to act, the hypothesis of arranged conduct is a superior indicator of conduct than the hypothesis of contemplated activity. In the hypothesis of arranged conduct, control is considered as a variable marked apparent social control, which is characterized as a people view of how simple or troublesome it is play out the activity. The hypothesis of Planned Behavior (TPB) has been since its advancement somewhere in the range of 20 years end up being an amazing way to deal with clarify human conduct. Â The Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) predicts that arranged practices are dictated by social goals which are to a great extent affected by a people disposition toward a conduct, the emotional standards encasing the execution of the conduct, and the people view of their command over the conduct (Ajzen, 1975). In more straightforward terms, social choices are the aftereffect of a contemplated procedure where the conduct is impacted by mentalities, standards and saw conduct control. 2.3 The Theory of Planned Behavior: Model Icek Ajzens modified model (1991) is communicated in the outline (figure 2) beneath: Figure 2: Ajzens Theory of Planned Behavior The hypothesis of arranged conduct hypothesizes three thoughtfully determinants of expectation. 2.4 Determinants of Behavioral Intention Mentality towards conduct Mentalities speak to a people likes, aversions, convictions and suppositions with respect to a specific conduct. It speaks to a synopsis of assessment of mental article catches in trait measurements of good-awful, destructive helpful, wonderful unsavory, and affable dislikable (Ajzen; 2001) Rosenberg and Hovland (1996) saw disposition as a multi-part build and made the accompanying articulation all reactions to an upgrade object are interceded by the people mentality towards the article. Ayres (2008) claims that generally there have been a vocation forever reasoning embraced by laborers, whereby laborers will go through their whole working time on earth working in one industry, and, much of the time, one association. This way of thinking has as of late, matching with Generation Y entering the workforce, been supplanted by a progressively dubious profession structure, with representatives much of the time changing bosses inside their industry and numerous additionally seeking after work in various enterprises (Inkson, Anhur, and Pringle, 1999). Morton (2002) expressed that Generation Y representatives show a propensity towards esteeming equity in the working environment and they look for places that offer sensible wages and great open doors for preparing. Morton (2002) additionally guaranteed that they regard directors who engage laborers and who are transparent with workers. Martin (2005), who calls this age Yers, depicts eight primary attributes appeared by Generation Y towards their professions. These eight qualities incorporate the Generation Y worker acting naturally dependent and autonomous, technosavvy, enterprising, looking for adaptability, having an earnest feeling of promptness, needing expanding obligation, having a take a deep breath and relax disposition and embracing a free organization demeanor. Oliver (2006) claims that ongoing enthusiasm for the Generation Y laborer has increased as of late, and keeping in mind that speculations are ample, he asserts that the Generation Y specialist is uninterested in a vocation forever, rather looking for adaptability and work-life balance. Oliver (2006) states that, generally, Generation Y laborers are believed to have a lot better standards of an occupation than past ages, including elevated requirements of pay, conditions, advancement and progression. An investigation led by Kusluvan and Kusluvan (2000) found that a portion of the components that appeared to represent the negative perspectives towards professions in the travel industry, shaped after understudies had embraced a down to earth work task, are distressing occupations, absence of family life inferable from the idea of the work, long working hours, debilitating and occasional (insecure) occupations, low societal position of the travel industry occupations, inadmissible and unreasonable advancements, low compensation and inadequate advantages, unfit supervisors, poor mentalities and conduct of administrators towards representatives, inadequate collaborators and poor perspectives and conduct of colleagues and poor physical working conditions for representatives. Emotional Norms Emotional Norms is how much somebody needs to fit in with others conduct or desires. Typically, others are people (loved ones) whose inclinations on a topic are essential to the person in question. This idea was brought into hypothesis of arranged conduct to suit the non volitional components innate, at any rate conceivably, in all practices (Ajzen, 2002). In spite of the fact that schools, peers and the understudies network all affect the youthful grown-ups self-personality and profession decision, the guardians desires and impression of professional fit for their kids have been seen as the key jobs in molding their vocation decisions (Ferry, 2006). In one investigation (Creamer and Laughlin, 2005), this impact has been so solid as to supersede the impact of instructors, staff, and vocation field being referred to yet were not too referred to or potentially trusted as to understudies guardians for this sort of choice. In a period where 49% of UK laborers report that adjusting work and family obligations is an issue of critical worry to them (IP Morgan Fleming, 2003), the impact of family and individual life and vocation choices is accepting expanding measures of media consideration. Todays business college graduates ar

The suffering in Frankenstein is undeservered free essay sample

â€Å"The enduring in Frankenstein is undeserved† How far and in what ways do you concur with this perspective on Shelley’s introduction of torment? Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein presents enduring a wide range of mediums, anyway whether that enduring is merited shifts relying upon the development of the character. The tale was written in 1818 in the last phases of the Gothic abstract type; Shelley fuses the gothic topic while empowering two sorts of character †the individuals who are honest casualties and those which are answerable for their own quandary. In making and afterward running from his creation, Victor has carried on with punishable untrustworthiness, and along these lines incited the Creature’s vengeance. Victor can in this way be viewed as meriting the enduring brought his way, because of his unsalvageable harm because of his underlying disregard of ‘the monster’. In any case, one could derive that it is the obligation of the Creature to perceive his own dangerous activities. Shelley makes Victor’s first individual recalling portrayal to be egotistical and childish in nature. In parts 1 through 3, Victor is demonstrated to be excessively content: â€Å"no person could have passed a more joyful adolescence than myself†, he wants to learn† which powers his fulfillment. Such complexity between his delight before the making of ‘the monster’, and his steady enduring which is forced after, stresses the misstep which was â€Å"trying to play god†:  â€Å"When man attempts to play God, he wrecks the process†¦When Frankenstein made the daemon, he made something that just brought confusion upon his life† (Chris Jones). Victor is the sole maker of all the anguish and subsequently holds unified duty; this is at last introduced when the beast alludes to him as â€Å"my despot and tormenter†. Fred Botting composes that â€Å"[the monster’s] ensuing savagery shows the similarly human cross examination of human attributes that revolted him† therefore it is evident, that without Victor’s hubristic wants, all devastation could have been dodged. In addition, Victor’s narcissistic way confines the peruser from feeling for him, because of his powerlessness to assume full liability for his activities: â€Å"I trusted myself to have a characteristic talent†. Victor’s â€Å"impatient hunger for sympathy† makes it clear that he is completely uninformed to his responsibility in the issue. â€Å"I am separated from everyone else and hopeless, just somebody as monstrous as I am could cherish me†, rather than tolerating the monster’s supplication, Victor attempts to do right however forestalling what he feels to be the potential for additional risk which is enveloped with the production of another. Thusly, Victor forfeits his satisfaction close by the lives of his dearest. Moreover, his dismissal for his own creation again features his narcissism: â€Å"I have suffered work and misery†. We hear the monster’s voice through Victor’s portrayal, along these lines introducing to the peruser that he is completely mindful of the enduring he has caused anyway effectively choses to desert the solicitation with contend dismissal to the sentiments of ‘the monster’: â€Å"a race of fiends would be engendered upon the earth†. Rather than ensuring and supporting his creation Victor avoids duty, introducing the shallow thinking he has for dispensing unremitting enduring on ‘the monster’. By leaving him in separation, Victor’s own enduring is vindicated. From a psychoanalytical point of view of the novel, ‘the monster’ can been viewed as a definitive portrayal of Frankenstein: â€Å"Victor Frankenstein’s apparent aching for another, in spite of his dear kinship with Henry Clerval and his prearranged engagement to Elizabeth, prompts the making of a being who turns into the lacking other which is in actuality Victor himself† (Kestner cited in Botting, 1995: 69). This thought likewise identifies with the narcissus complex, as Victor denies his blemishes and rather extends them onto his creation. From this it is obvious that Victor’s enduring equals with that of ‘the monster’, as in the two cases it is the consequence of relinquishment †the beast is declined into society and Victor loses each one of those dearest to him: â€Å"that I may remain alone†. All things being equal, it might be seen that the enduring of Victor’s is progressively advocated because of his focal job in making â€Å"the posterity of isolation and delirium†. On the other hand, it very well may be contended that ‘the monster’ is logical research, as was made to do the trick Victor’s interest. He was unconscious of what became thus can't be accused for society’s powerlessness to acknowledge such irregularity. In any case, Mary Shelley places accentuation on Victor’s â€Å"fervent aching to enter the insider facts of nature† so as to complement his infringement of characteristic limits. She develops this assault allegory so as to delineate a lady (speaking to nature), opposing his endeavors to abuse her. Victor is in this way introduced as completely aware of his endeavor to â€Å"pour a downpour of light into our dim world†. From a women's activist viewpoint it very well may be seen that the female characters are spoken to as aloof, defenseless and basically needing protecting. Their enduring may in this way be viewed as baseless because of their harmless introduction. The absence of consideration Victor pays Elizabeth makes her endure genuinely because of his separation, henceforth allowing her forlornness: â€Å"tortured as I have been by on edge suspense†, proposing Elizabeth as guiltlessly troubled due to Victor’s deserting. Moreover, this undeserved enduring because of the physical disregard Victor pays her †because of his self important way †is additionally underscored in Danny Boyle’s translation of Shelley’s epic. The creation depicts the conspicuous thought that Victor could have made existence with Elizabeth â€Å"the regular way† (by having a kid), anyway dismisses this as he dedicates himself to the production of a counterfeit being. His hubristic characteristics plot his fixation on likening to the degree of god, through his ardent desires for natural revelation: â€Å"natural theory is the virtuoso that has manage my fate†. Such dismissal of labor mirrors that of the awful encounters Shelley experienced in the course of her life. She lost three of her youngsters rashly before bringing forth her lone enduring child. Without a doubt, the troubling misfortune she encountered direct may have been the drive behind Victor’s intense want for finding different approaches to make life; for this situation giving â€Å"animation to dormant matter†. In like manner, the enduring of Elizabeth is accordingly undeserved as it is the consequence of Victor’s narcissistic characteristics and nonsensical energy: â€Å"my interests vehement†. The development of the minor characters that become the outcomes of Victor’s creation, together present the undeserved enduring in Frankenstein. William, Justine, Clerval and Elizabeth all pass on because of Victor’s creation. Their consolidated enduring is undeserved as they are basically the repercussion of Victors â€Å"ultimate wrongdoing against God† [David Punter]. Their demises could be believed to feature Victor’s merited affliction, as despite the fact that the results of his â€Å"crime† are introduced, he despite everything rejects his responsibility. â€Å"They were dead, and I lived; their killer additionally lived†, Shelley utilizes the conjunctive â€Å"also† to isolate â€Å"their murderer† from him. Victor portrays both him and ‘the monster’ indistinguishably as living, anyway intentionally separates between the two through expelling himself from fault. Shelley presents various sorts of enduring inside the minor characters. While subjects like Clerval and William experience the ill effects of a fierce homicide, Justine then again, endures treachery and dishonest complaint; a unintended outcast because of Victor’s narcissistic quality, which is the explanation he can't concede fault for the current occasions, â€Å"such declarations†¦would not have absolved her who endured me†. His declaration of pity promptly relates back to himself, introducing his requirement for self-defense: â€Å"poor troubled Justine, was as blameless as I†. All things considered, Victor recognizes that the occasions were â€Å"a consequence of [his] interest and uncivilized devices† and portrays the occasions as a â€Å"wretched joke of justice†. In any case, paying little mind to his inside admission: â€Å"I am the reason for this †I killed her†, the control of these musings is eventually the reason for her passing. The shallow disregard society has for the animal is urgent to the enduring he suffers, just as that which circles the novel. The reader’s first composition of the ‘monster’s’ enduring in the underlying phases of his portrayal, grant a feeling of sympathy: â€Å"I felt cold†¦half-frightened†¦finding myself so desolate†. His enduring is undeserved because of his blamelessness. With the disregard of Victor, he had no mother figure to raise and support him, and thus one must ask from a moral point of view, is he then responsible for his unmonitored activities. Mary Shelley investigates this discussion destined to mirror her essential encounters with a motherless youth. Interestingly, when the novel switches back to Victor’s portrayal, the monster’s enduring may start to be viewed as sane because of his bad habit demonstrations of homicide, perm

Eating Healthy Doesnt Have to Break the Bank

Eating Healthy Doesnt Have to Break the Bank Eating Healthy Doesnt Have to Break the Bank Eating Healthy Doesnt Have to Break the BankBuying fresh produce doesn’t have to be out of reach when your budget is tight. Heres how to save money on fruits and vegetables.When you have a limited income, budgeting for your groceries can be challenging. According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s (USDA) latest available numbers, a family of four with children older than 5 years old should be able to meet its dietary needs with $646.80 (a “thrifty food plan”) to $1,288.20 (a “liberal food plan”) each month.No matter how much you spend on groceries, we can probably agree that spending more than $600 a month on food is no small fee. At the same time, the USDA uses the numbers in its thrifty food plan as the basis for maximum allotments through its supplemental nutrition assistance program, also referred to as SNAP. Unfortunately, this creates a problem, as it can be difficult to feed a family on a budget when using SNAP.A 2017 study from North Carolina State University in Raleigh found that SNAP allotments only cover 43%- 60% of a “healthy” diet that follows certain federal guidelines. How much more a family needs to spend on food in addition to a SNAP allotment depends on what kind of diet the family is eating. For example, a diet that features only fresh produce is the most expensive, costing a family of four $626.95 each month in addition to SNAP benefits. But according to the study, even the least expensive dietâ€"a vegetarian dietâ€"costs $487.39 more than SNAP allotments.Those of us who want to eat and serve fresh, healthy meals on a budget certainly have challenges to overcome. It’s true that frozen and canned produce can often be healthy options, too, but there are thrifty ways to get fresh produce on the table. In this post, we explore a few ways to do just that.Develop your kitchen skillsKitchen skills can be a barrier of entry when it comes to eating healthy on a budget. Not feeling comfortable in the kitchen can make the dollar menu at the local fast-food joint awfully tempting, and when you aren’t comfortable planning meals for your family, food waste can become a costly problem.One great resource to becoming more comfortable in the kitchen is the free-to-download cookbook Good and Cheap by Leanne Brown. Brown first developed the book as part of her master’s degree in food science. She wanted to develop recipes for those living on a limited income, particularly those using SNAP. Brown’s recipes are inexpensive, easy to prepare, flavorful, and as the book’s states, “celebrate the vegetables rather than the meat.”The book alone, of course, is not a silver bullet, but it is a great resource for anyone who wants to develop kitchen skills and eat fresh fruits and vegetables on a budget. If you prefer to have a hard copy, check your local library. Thousands of copies have been donated and are available to borrow.You can also check out our article, The Broke Persons Guide to Home Cooking.Try local fa rmers marketsOne of Brown’s top pieces of advice is to buy produce in season. “During their local growing season,” she writes, “fruits and vegetables are generally cheaper and definitely tastier than outside of season.” For example, you may have noticed that ears of corn are quite inexpensive in the summer months, but the price climbs in the winter. That’s because corn is ready to pick and readily available in the summer.Your local farmers market is a great place to buy in season. At farmers markets, producers sell their produce and other goods directly to consumers. If you’ve never been to a farmers market, you may assume that its produce, which is local and frequently organic, may be more expensive than what you find in the grocery store. Although actual pricing depends on where you live and what you are buying, studies have found on average, produce is cheaper at the farmers market than it is at a regular grocery store. Additionally, the produce you buy at a farmers market is frequently fresher and higher quality than grocery store options.It’s important to note that low-income neighborhoods are heavily impacted by food deserts, areas that lack easy access to purveyors of fresh produce and other whole foods, such as grocery stores and farmers markets. Still, that doesn’t mean if you live in a low-income area, you do not have access to farmers markets. A study by the Project for Public Spaces found farmers markets “represent an important strategy in the efforts to bring affordable, healthy food options into low-income communities,” especially since the number of markets in the United States continues to grow.Use the USDA’s national farmers market directory to find a farmers market near you. You may also want to search for local directories, as states and other regional areas often produce their own.Plan for the short termBe strategic about the produce that you do buy. Brown recommends buying groceries on a weekly schedule in order to reduce your food waste. The idea is to only buy what you need for a week so that you can eat it all before it goes bad. You can also focus on buying fruits and vegetables, such as carrots, apples, and potatoes, that have a longer shelf life than more delicate types of produce. Additional tips on smart navigation of the grocery store are available here.Consider ugly produceCompanies like Imperfect Produce may be beneficial if you live in one of the areas it services. The organization sells and delivers produce that otherwise would have been destined for a landfill because it doesn’t meet the specific aesthetic requirements most stores want to present on their shelves. For example, maybe the apples are a bit smaller than you would find at the supermarket, or the carrots aren’t perfectly straight, but they are still edible and healthy, just the same.Because the company sells food products that otherwise would have been tossed to the side, Imperfect Produce is able to offer both con ventional and organic produce for much cheaper than you would find at the store. The organization also offers a reduced cost box program for families that qualify for SNAP.Plant a garden or join a community gardenIf you don’t have access to a farmers market, or if you want to supplement the produce that is available to you, consider starting a small garden. Even if you live in an urban area, having a small, manageable garden is possible.   For a small upfront investment, you can set up small container gardens on a rooftop deck, or windowsill.It’s true that gardening can be a lot of work, but there are certain plants that produce abundantly and are easy to care for in relatively small container gardens. According to the Urban Gardeners Republic, lettuces, tomatoes, cucumbers, carrots, radishes, green beans, and zucchini are among the easiest produce to grow in an urban setting. And don’t forget about herbs, such as basil and mint, which can thrive in small pots on windowsills i f they get enough sunlight. Modern Farmer also has some great tips on how to start an urban container garden.If you live in an apartment and there is any green space around the property, consider asking your landlord if you could plant a few things. If this or a container garden is not an option, try to find a community garden to join. There are different types of community gardens, but in general, members of community gardens share the spoils of the soil in exchange for helping tend to the garden. To find a community garden near you, use Urban Farming’s locator tool.Consider using (or donating to) a food pantry  Many of us think of canned goods and nonperishables when we think of food pantries. But many also offer fresh seasonal produce. For those of us who do not have access to fresh fruits and vegetables, food pantries can be a great resource.Ample Harvest, an organization that helps connect gardeners with food pantries, provides resources and locators for those in search of a food pantry that offers fresh produce. If your garden takes off and you end up with more produce than you can eat, you can use Ample Harvest to pay it forward and donate your extra produce to a food pantry near you.What to do with your savingsWhat happens when you have extra money left over in your grocery budget? We recommend starting an emergency fund. Even if you can only contribute a few bucks here or there, an emergency fund is an important part of becoming financially stable. That way, when an unexpected expense arisesâ€"or one month’s grocery budget got eaten up by something elseâ€"you will have an emergency stash of cash  to tide you over.

Essay about Three Major Factors Of The Renaissance

The word Renaissance means â€Å"rebirth† and it was the response to the brutal hardships of daily life in the middle ages. It was mostly based around humanism, fine arts, and reformation of the Church. Early humanists such as Dante Alighieri, Giovanni Pico della Mirandola, and Niccolo Machiavelli wrote books and expressed new ideas about humanism which made everyday life more secular and free willing. The three major factors of the Renaissance that were different from the middle ages were Humanism, improvements in discovery, and the Reformation of the Church. In the middle ages, people’s lives were very dedicated to two things: the Church, and feudalism. Leading thinkers were preoccupied with the individual’s responsibility to God designing†¦show more content†¦Art, music and advances in technology did not go anywhere in the middle ages because there were no great artists, composers, or scientists. Feudalism and the Roman Catholic Church restricted man y new inventions and discoveries up until the after the Hundred years’ war and the Black Death. But when Renaissance came along man’s curiosity brought up many brilliant artists such as Michelangelo Buonarotti and Leonardi Da Vinci. These geniuses brought art to a new age by building sculptures, creating frescoes, and creating famous paintings. Da Vinci, the â€Å"ultimate renaissance man† introduced not just new art, but new sciences, technologies and many other inventions. He studied the human anatomy and had plans for helicopters, tanks, canals, and river systems. His famous paintings are the Mona Lisa and the Last Supper. Great composers were Josquin Des Prez and Giovanni Palestrina. Josquin had an ability to reveal meaning and emotions of a text through â€Å"word painting†. He wrote over 100 motets, 20 masses, and 70 chansons. Inventors were Johann Gutenburg, Galileo Galilei, and Nicolaus Copernicus. Johann had developed the printing press which was very vital in copying written works and music. Galileo had developed the telescope which enabled people to see space and the stars at a very far distant. Copernicus was a scientist and mathematician who sought up the idea of the Heliocentric (sun centered) theory of theShow MoreRelatedThe Renaissance Was A Period Of The Art And Learning Styles Based On Greco Roman Inspiration975 Words   |  4 PagesThe Renaissance was a period of the â€Å"rebirth† of the art and learning styles based on Greco-Roman inspiration. These ideas had been lost in Europe due to the Dark Ages. The Renaissance began in the 1300s, and it reached its crowning point during the 1500s. During this time, trading was thriving, and this allowed for innovative ideas to spread. Trade routes from the Middle East and far East brought mathematical and scientific advancements to Europe. 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Many questions about this time period include â€Å"How was Harlem life like back then?† â€Å"What is the Harlem Renaissance?†, and â€Å"How did itRead MoreGrammatical and Lexical Changes 1550 -1700 Essay948 Words   |  4 PagesToday, like during the renaissance when it could be said that the English language developed the most, there is no shortage of people who comment and have opinions on the development of the English Language. In an essay entitled English our English John Marenbon (1987) talks of the necessity to include Latin in the national curriculum to aid the English student in their study, he also says that any Englishman who does not h ave a grasp of Latin is (A) stranger to his own culture (note the patriarchal

The Undisputed Truth About Ccot Essay Samples Ap World That the Experts Dont Want You to Know

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Logistics Management Free Essays

string(102) " elimination of excessive inventories traditionally stocked in anticipation of customer requirements\." LOGISTICS MANAGEMENT Chapter-1 Concepts Objectives and Elements of Logistics 1. A. Introduction of Marketing Logistics B. We will write a custom essay sample on Logistics Management or any similar topic only for you Order Now Definition of Marketing Logistics C. Evolution of Marketing Logistics Intl. Logistics D. Concept of Logistics E. Components of Logistics system F. Article Chapter-2 Logistics Sub-system A. Marketing Logistics B. Essence of logistics in marketing: C. Relevance of Logistics in Export Management D. Importance of Logistics as a strategic resource: E. Trade-Off Analysis F. Forms of logistics management G. Questions for Self-Analyzation Chapter-3 International Logistics A. Introduction B. Definition C. Supply Management D. Incoterms E. International Packaging Issues Chapter-4 Integrated Logistics A. Introduction B. Network Design C. Information Location Redesign D. Transportation E. Inventory Warehousing, Material Handling, and Packaging F. Integrated Logistics Inventory Flow G. Information Flow Hospital’s Cure for Inefficiency H. Barriers to Internal Integration CHAPTER-1 Concepts Objectives and Elements of Logistics 2. Definitions of Logistics Logistics is new unique, it never stops! Logistics is happening around the globe 24 hours days Seven days a week during fifty-two weeks a year. Few areas of business involve the complexity or span the geography typical of logistics. Logistics is concerned with getting products and services where they are needed whenever they are desired. Most consumers take a high level of logistical competency for granted. When they go to store, they expect products to be available and fresh. It is rather difficult to visualize any marketing or manufacturing without logistical support Modern logistics is also a paradox. Logistics has been performed since the beginning of civilization: it’s hardly new. However implementing best practice of logistics has become one of the most exciting and challenging operational areas of business and public sector management According to Council of logistics management: â€Å"Logistics is the process of planning, implementing and controlling the efficient, effective flow and storage of goods, services and related information from point of origin to point of consumption for the purpose of conforming the customer requirement†. Logistical management includes the design and administration of systems to controls the flow of material, work- in – process, and finished inventory to support business unit strategy. Logistics is the designing and managing of a system in order to control the flow of material throughout a corporation. This is a very important part of an international company because of geographical barriers. Logistics of an international company includes movement of raw materials, coordinating flows into and out of different countries, choices of transportation, and cost of the transportation, packaging the product for shipment, storing the product, and managing the entire process. Analysis of the figure of evolution of logistics [pic] Fragmentation 1960 This era was known as fragmentation because every thing that done was disintegrated Evolving Integration At this stage of time new concepts of Logistical management were evolving Total integration In the present scenario because of technological advances logistics has evolved as part of management Concept of Logistics The concept of logistics is fairly new in the business world. The theoretical development was not used until 1966. Since then, many business practices have evolved and logistics currently costs between 10 and 25 percent of the total cost of an international purchase. There are two main phases that are important in the movement of materials: material management and physical distribution; Materials management is the timely movement of raw materials, parts, and supplies. The physical distribution is the movement of the firm’s finished products to the customers. Both phases involve every stage of the process including storage. The ultimate goal of logistics is: â€Å"To coordinate all efforts of the company to maintain a cost effective flow of goods. † Word, ’Logistics’ is derived from French word ‘loger’, which means art of war pertaining to movement and supply of armies. A military concept, fighting a war requires: i. Setting of an objective ii. Meticulous planning to achieve the objective iii. Troops properly deployed iv. Supply line consisting weaponry, food, medical assistance, etc. maintained v. Plan should be such that there is minimum loss to men material Like fighting a war in the battlefield, the marketing managers also need a suitable logistics plan that is capable of satisfying the company objective of meeting profitably the demand of targeted customers. Inbound logistics + Material Management + Physical Distribution =Logistics Discussion of each and every term in this above summation i. Inbound logistics covers the movement of materials received from suppliers ii. Material management describes the movements of material components within a firm iii. Physical distribution refers to movement of goods outward from the end of the assembly line to the costumer. iv. Supply- chain management is somewhat larger than logistics and it links logistics more directly within the user’s total communication network with the firm engineering staff. It includes manufacturer and suppliers but also transporters, warehouses, retailers and customers themselves. Importance of logistics i. Transportation cost rose rapidly due to the rise in fuel prices ii. Production efficiency was reaching a peak iii. Fundamental change in inventory philosophy iv. Product line proliferated v. Computer technology vi. Increased use or computers vii. Increased public concern of products Growth of several new, large retail chains or mass merchandise with large demands very sophisticated logistics services, by pass traditional channel distribution viii. Reduction in economic regulation ix. Growing power of retailers x. Globalization The interrelation of different logistics element and their costs should be based on total cost rather than individual costs. The objectives of Logistics Operating Objectives In terms of logistical system design and administration, each firm must simultaneously achieve at least six different operational objectives. These operational objectives, which are the primary determinants of logistical performance, include rapid response, minimum variance, minimum inventory, movement consolidation, quality, and life-cycle support. Each objective is briefly discussed. Rapid Response Rapid response is concerned with a firm’s ability to satisfy customer service requirements in a timely manner. Information technology has increased the capability to postpone logistical operations to the latest possible time and then accomplish rapid delivery of required inventory. The result is elimination of excessive inventories traditionally stocked in anticipation of customer requirements. You read "Logistics Management" in category "Papers" Rapid response capability shifts operational emphasis from an anticipatory posture based on forecasting and inventory stocking to responding to customer requirements on a shipment-to-shipment basis. Because inventory is typically not moved in a time-based system until customer requirements are known and performance is committed, little tolerance exists for operational deficiencies Minimum Variance Variance is any unexpected event that disrupts system performance. Variance may result from any aspect of logistical operations. Delays in expected time of customer order receipt, an unexpected disruption in manufacturing, goods arriving damaged at a customer’s location, or delivery to an incorrect location-all result in a time disruption in operations that must be resolved. Potential reduction of variance’ relates to both internal and external operations. Operating areas of a logistical system are subject to potential variance. The traditional solution to accommodating variance was to establish safety stock inventory or use high-cost premium transportation. Such practices, given their expense and associated risk, have been replaced by using information technology to achieve positive logistics Control. To the extent that variances are minimized, logistical productivity improves as a result of economical operations. Thus, a basic objective of overall logistical performance is to minimize variance. Minimum Inventory The objective of minimum variance involves asses commitment and relative turn velocity. Total commitment is the financial value of inventory deployed throughout the logistical system. Turn velocity involves the rate of inventory usage over time. High turn rates, coupled with inventory availability, means that assets devoted to inventory are being effectively utilized. The objective is to reduce inventory deployment to the lowest level consistent with customer service goals to achieve the lowest overall total logistics cost. Concepts like zero inventories have become increasingly as managers seek to reduce inventory deployment. The reality of reengineering a system is that operational defects do not become apparent until inventories are reduced to their lowest possible level. While the goal of eliminating all inventories is attractive, it is important to remember that inventory can and does facilitate some important benefits in a logistical system. Inventories can provide improved return on investment when they result in economies of scale in manufacturing or procurement. The objective is to reduce and manage inventory to the lowest possible level while simultaneously achieving desired operating objectives. To achieve the objective of minimum inventory, the logistical system design must control commitment and turn velocity for the entire firm, not merely for each business location. Movement consolidation One of the most significant logistical costs is transportation. Transportation cost is directly related to the type of product, size of shipment, and distance. Many Logistical systems that feature premium service depend on high-speed, small-shipment transportation. Premium transportation is typically high-cost. To reduce transportation cost, it is desirable to achieve movement consolidation. As a general rule, the larger the overall shipment and the longer the distance it is transported, the lower the transportation cost per unit. This requires innovative programs to group small shipments for consolidated movement. Such programs must be facilitated by working arrangements that transcend the overall supply chain. Quality improvement A fifth logistical objective is to seek continuous quality improvement. Total quality management (TQM) has become a major commitment throughout all facets of industry. Overall commitment to TQM is one of the major forces contributing to the logistical renaissance. If a product becomes defective or if service promises are not kept, little, if any, value is added by the logistics. Logistical costs, once expended, cannot be reversed. In fact, when quality fails, the logistical performance typically needs to be reversed and then repeated. Logistics itself must perform to demanding quality standards. The management challenge of achieving zero defect logistical performance is magnified by the fact that logistical operations typically must be performed across a vast geographical area at all times of the day and night. The quality challenge is magnified by the fact that most logistical work is performed out of a supervisor’s vision. Reworking a customer’s order as a result of incorrect shipment or in-transit damage is far more costly than performing it right the first time. Logistics is a prime part of developing and maintaining continuous TQM improvement. Life-Cycle support The final logistical design objective is life-cycle support. Few items are sold without some guarantee that the product will perform as advertised over a specified period. In some situations. The normal value-added inventory flow toward customers must be reversed. Product recall is a critical competency resulting from increasingly rigid quality standards, product expiration dating and responsibility for hazardous consequences. Return logistics requirements also result from the increasing number of laws prohibiting disposal and encouraging recycling of beverage containers and packaging materials. The most significant aspect of reverse logistical operations is the need for maximum control when a potential health liability exists (i. e.. a contaminated product). In this sense, a recall program is similar to a strategy of maximum customer service that must be executed regardless of cost. Johnson Johnson’s classical response to the Tylenol crisis is an example of turning adversity into advantage. The operational requirements of reverse logistics range from lowest total cost, such as returning bottles for recycling, to maximum performance solutions for critical recalls. The important point is that sound logistical strategy cannot be formulated without careful review of reverse logistical requirements. Some products, such as copying equipment, derive their primary profit from selling supplies and providing aftermarket. Service. The importance of service support logistics varies directly with the product and buyer. For firms marketing consumer durables or industrial equipment, the commitment to life-cycle support constitutes a versatile and demanding operational requirement as well as one of the largest costs of logistical operations. The life-cycle support capabilities of a logistical system must be carefully designed. As noted earlier, reverse logistical competency, as a result of worldwide attention to environmental concerns, requires the capacity to recycle ingredients and packaging materials. Life-cycle support, in modern terms, means cradle-to-cradle logistical support. We will now cover the components of Logistics The components mainly comprises of the part mostly of which we have already covered in our earlier semesters With the help of the figure given below can you tell me with how many terms are you aware with? Yes that very nice of all of you that you are aware of most of the terms But don’t panick!!! I would be covering each term in detail so that you can revise with me For the components see the figure given below Inputs into logistics i. Natural resources ii. Human Resources iii. Financial Resources iv. Information Resources Can anyone tell me what these resources regarding logistics management? Management actions i. Planning ii. Implantation iii. Control We have already discussed these terms in first and second semesters Logistics Management i. Raw Material ii. In-Process Inventory iii. Finished Goods These are the systems through which products goes from suppliers to customers. Logistics activities i. Customers Service ii. Demand forecasting iii. Distribution communication iv. Inventory Control v. Material Handling vi. Order Processing vii. Part Service Support viii. Plant and Warehouse side selection ix. Procurement x. Packaging xi. Return goods handling xii. Salvage scrap disposal xiii. Traffic transportation xiv. Warehousing Storage Outputs of Logistics i. Marketing Orientation ii. Time Place Utility iii. Efficient Movement to Customer iv. Proprietary asset Components of logistics management: pic] Questions for self-analysation A. What do you understand by term LOGISTICS? Explain it with the evolution concept. B. With the help of suitable figure discuss the components of logistical systems. C. Define the term LOGISTICS, with suitable example . And the importance of logistics in today’s business life. D. With the help of suitable example clearly explain the objectiv es of Logistics. Why tylenol remains number one Johnson Johnson’s McNeil Consumer Products Division was hit with a major crisis in September 1982. Their top-seHing product line, Tylenol, was linked to seven deaths in the Chicago area. At the time of the incident, Tyleool enjoyed 35 percent of the $1 billion analgesic market, but by the end of September, this market share had dropped 80 percent. Currently, Tylenol is again the top-selling brand with approximately 30 percent of the now $2,7 billion analgesic market. t How Was Johnson Johnson (1) able to regain market share and a leading image after such a damaging tragedy? Its recovery was successful because of reverse logistics capability coupled with a marketing strategy that focused on protecting the consumer and going above and beyond what was necessary to instill] trust and an image of security. This recovery plan is a positive prototype for other corporations to follow, which, in effect, may increase the potential for voluntary product recants across a variety of industries. When the List news reports hit about cyanide-tainted Extra-Strength Tylenol capsules, J was unsure whether the tampering occurred in its manufacturing operations or at the retail level. As such, its first efforts were directed at pinning down the problem. As soon as the lot numbers were identified from the first few deaths, J stopped production in the plant responsible. At the same time, it halted all Tylenol commercials nationwide and began recalls that eventually involved 31 million bottles of product, which had a retail value of $100 million. Another strategy that J took was to work openly and closely with the media. 1 has traditionally maintained a distance from the press, but in this case it felt that openness and honesty would help reduce consumer panic and provide a vehicle for disseminating critical information. A crisis team was put together that included J as well as McNeil executives and top managers. This team was quite sure that the tampering had occurred at the retail level since the incident was isolated to Chicago’s West Side and other samples from the same lot were normal. Regardless, they began the recall with the remaining 93,000 bottles from this lot. The expenses of this first phase of the recall included $1 million just for phone calls and telegrams to doctors, hospitals, and distributors. The sixth poisoning ensured that the tampering was at the retail level since the bottle came from a lot manufactured at its second plant. Since the cause was now isolated, J1 could concentrate on containment. The first step was to advocate a total recall. While this step was in some ways unnecessary, JJ felt it was a key step to ensure consumer confidence. At first, the FBI and FDA advised against a total recall because of the potential psychological response of the person who tampered with the product and the response of consumers in general. However, after copycat strychnine poisoning in California, all parties agreed that complete removal was the best solution. This total recall entailed the following i. Advertisements stating that NcNeil would exchange tablets for capsules, ii. Thousands of letters to the trade to explain the incident and recall procedures, iii. Media statements, iv. A sales force of over 2,000 employees to contact doctors and pharmacists to regain trust and restore their recommendations that had traditionally served as the main promotional avenue for Tylenol products, v. An extensive reverse logistics system that included buying products back from retailers and consumers and shipping returns to disposal centers, and vi. Creating a tamperproof package. It is estimated that recall costs were at least $100 million, most of which involved the reverse logistics operations. By January 1983, the new tamperproof bottles of Tylenol were on the retail shelf. Consumer confidence was obviously regained as a result of the extensive voluntary recall] program, effective public relations, and sales programs and repack operations. This confidence was shown by the fact that at the end of the year, Tylenol had regained almost 30 percent of the market although market share has remained at about 30 percent, sales dollars have more than doubled. Since the total industry sales were about $1 billion in the early 1980s but are now $2. 7 billion CHAPTER-2 Logistics Subsystem Marketing Logistics In 1991 the Council of Logistics Management (CLM) a prestigious, professional organization, defined logistics as â€Å"the process of planning, implementing controlling the efficient, effective flow the point of origin to the point of consumption for the purpose of conforming to customer requirements†. â€Å"Logistics means the art of managing the flow of raw materials and finished goods from the source to the user† To get goods from where they arise to the right place in the right form, at the right time, at the right cost, â€Å"Logistics or physical distribution or distribution logistics is an integral part of Marketing Process†. Essence of logistics in marketing i. Marketing Process is successfully completed when ii. Products are produced and priced to satisfy the identified needs of the segment of buyers Arrangements are made to supply these goods through selected distribution channels iii. An awareness is created among the buyers about the availability of the goods through information facilitation iv. Goods are physically supplied to the buyers at the place time selected by them. v. Besides satisfying the customers need, the marketing process must be profitable to the seller. So in the Marketing sense, utility is not merely the usefulness of a product to satisfy the customer needs but also moving the product from a manufacturing facility to the user. â€Å"Thus, Logistics is a link between the manufacturing selling process that leads to the creation of place and time utility† While the production element in the marketing – mix (product, price, place promotion) leads to creation of ‘form’ utility by taking decisions as product line variety, design, color brand, service, etc. he distribution element comprising distribution channel fixation physical movement, creates ‘time’ ‘place’ utility by ensuring that the produced goods reach the place time chosen by the buyer. Logistics is the designing and managing of a system in order to control the flow of material throughout a corporation. This is a very important part of an international company because of geographical barriers. Relevance of Logistics in Ex port Management International trade is becoming a more important part of the GNP in the industrially advanced countries. Many firms in these countries have production centers world wide for markets all over the world. Lack of local resources, small size of home market and many other reasons has resulted in functional centers being maintained in various countries. Issues associated with international transportation of finished goods are essentially the same as those that apply to transportation in domestic trade. But, under international operations, goods can be out of exporter’s control for longer period of time, more documentation is required, packaging may be more costly and shipping insurance is more costly. The transportation alternatives include ocean shipping and containerization as well as airfreight. The basic activities involved in the flow of goods, like transportation, warehousing and holding of inventories, should be integrated in a systems approach. The systems approach would recognize the trade-offs, such that sometimes more expensive airfreight may be opted for, instead of less expensive ocean shipping, because of savings in warehouse and inventory costs. In the field of exports, it should be noted that transport systems in developing countries are generally not as efficient as in the industrially advanced countries. Transportation is often considered to be the most important single determinant of plant location. Firms in international trade also try to reduce amount of unnecessary product packaging, since packing material can account for almost 40 per cent of the weight of the products shipped. A company can reduce inland transportation charges by locating its distribution facilities adjacent to container ports or airports. The burden of documentation can be eased through computerization. Export management involves marketing in overseas market. Hence the discussions on the interface of logistics with marketing holds good for the relevance of logistics in export management. Yet, in addition, export management has certain unique features, as discussed above, to be understood in the context of relevance of logistics to export management. Importance of Logistics as a strategic resource Logistical Management includes the design and administration of systems to control the flow of material, work-in-progress and finished inventory to support business unit strategy. Discussion of the concept of logistics, its place in the value-chain process leading to profitability, its contribution as one of the primary functions and its interface with other functions of the firm bring outs its importance as a strategic resource. However, to be of a real strategic influence, a good amount of competency has to be achieved and a well-defined logistical mission and objectives has to be committed to, by every one in the firm, especially the top management. Logistical competency Logistics involves detailed and complex work. Logistical management starts with how logistical competency fits into a firm’s overall strategic. Positioning. It is fundamentally important to view logistics as to how it can be exploited as a core competency. For logistical competency to develop, it is important to develop an integrated framework that defines and relates key concepts. This integration should be in such a way that competitively superior logistical performance contributes to overall enterprise strategy. Logistical competency is a relative assessment of a firm’s capability to provide competitively superior customer service at the lowest possible total cost. This typically means that logistical performance is dedicated to supporting any or all marketing and manufacturing requirements in a manner that exploits delivery capability. In short, the strategy is to provide superior service at a total cost below industry average. Alternative logistical capabilities, emphasizing flexibility, time-based performance, operational control, postponement capabilities, and most of all a commitment to perfect service performance typically characterize the service platform of superior logistic achievers. So we can say that all enterprises must perform logistics to achieve their basic business goals. One of several competencies required to create customer value is logistics. When logistics becomes a cornerstone of basic business strategy, it must be managed as a core competency. The Logistical Mission Logistics exists to satisfy customer requirements by facilitating relevant manufacturing and marketing operations. The challenge is to balance service expectations and cost expenditures in a manner that achieves business objectives. Basic logistical service is measured in terms of Availability Availability means having inventory to consistently meet customer material or product requirements. Operational performance Operational performance deals with the elapsed time from order receipt to delivery. Operational performance involves delivery speed and consistency. A firm’s operational performance can be viewed in terms of how flexible it is in accommodating unusual and unexpected customer requests. Service reliability Service reliability involves the quality attributes of logistics. For logistics performance to continuously meet customer expectations, it is essential that management be committed to continuous improvement. Do you know in 1956, in an effort to explain conditions under which high-cost air transport could be justified, Lewis, Colleton and Steele conceptualized the total cost of logistics. Total cost was positioned to include all expenditures necessary to perform logistical requirements. The authors illustrated an electronic parts distribution strategy Wherein the high variable cost of direct factory to customer air transport was more than offset by reductions in inventory and field warehouse costs. They concluded that the least total cost logistical way to provide desired customer service was to centralize inventory in one warehouse and make deliveries using air transportation. The concept of total cost, although basic, had not previously been applied to logistical analysis. Managers typically focused on minimizing functional cost, such as transportation, with the expectation that such effort would achieve the lowest combined cost. The total-cost concept opened the door to examining how functional costs interrelate. The appropriate level of logistics cost expenditure must be related to desired service performance. The simultaneous attainment of high availability, operational performance, and reliability is expensive. A significant managerial challenge stems from the fact that logistical cost and increased performance have a no proportional relationship. The typical logistical system in an enterprise seeks to develop and implement an overall logistical competency that satisfies key customer expectations at a realistic total-cost expenditure. Overall, logistical management is concerned with operations and coordination. Operations deal with strategic movement and storage. To complete the total operations mission. Attention must be directed to integrating physical distribution, manufacturing support, and procurement into a single logistical process. These three areas, functioning as an integrated and coordinated process, can best provide operational management of materials; semi finished components, and finished products moving between locations, supply sources, and customers of an enterprise. The mission of the logistical system is measured in terms of total cost and performance. Performance measurement is concerned with the availability of inventory, operational capability, and quality of effort. Logistical costs are directly related to desired level of performance. As a general rule, the greater the desired performance, the higher the total logistics cost. The key to effective logistical performance is to develop a balanced effort of service performance and total-cost expenditure. The strategic integration of logistics is fundamental to an enterprise’s success. While a firm may not select to differentiate competitively on the basis of logistical competency, it must perform logistical responsibilities as part of the fundamental process of creating customer value. The relative importance that a firm places on logistical competency will determine the degree of emphasis on achieving internal and external integration. Flexibility is key to logistical competency. Logistical flexibility results from integration and from implementing time-based control techniques. There are four logistics concepts: i. The systems concept ii. The total cost concept iii. The after-tax concept iv. The trade-off concept The systems concept is based on all functions of a organization working together in order to maximize benefits. This concept sometimes requires certain components of the organization to operate sub optimally in order to achieve maximum goals of the system. The total cost concept is based on the systems concept; however goal achievement is measured in terms of cost. A variation of the total cost concept is the after-tax concept. This goal of this concept is after-tax profit. This concept is becoming very popular because of the many different national tax policies. The trade-off concept links the system together in a way that is very efficient, but can have trade-offs that might be inefficient. The advantages of such high efficiency must be weighed against the risk involved. Logistics is a system having number of components, which can be combined in different proportions to achieve a set objective. Long-term objective is profitability; short-term objective is to survive competition by recovering marginal costs. Logistics sub-systems i. Physical Supply or Management of flow of raw materials, spare parts, consumable stores and machinery tools from suppliers ii. Physical distribution or management of finished goods from the factory to the buyers iii. Logistical Controls for managing the logistics system, it helps an efficient co-ordination of physical supply distribution sub-systems. Objective of an ideal logistic system is to ensure flow of supply to the buyer i. In Correct Quantity ii. At Desired location iii. At Required time iv. At useable condition v. At the lowest total cost Thus the objectives encompass efforts to coordinate physical distribution and material management in order to save money or improve service. Elements of logistics system i. Transportation ii. Warehousing iii. Inventory Management iv. Packing Utilization v. Information Communication When economists originally discussed supply-and-demand relationships, facility location and transportation cost differentials were assumed either nonexistent or equal among competitors. Given a facility network and information capability, transportation is the operational area of logistics that geographically positions inventory. Because of its fundamental importance and visible cost, transportation has received considerable managerial attention over the years. Almost all enterprises, big and small, have managers responsible for transportation. Finding and managing the desired transportation mix is a primary responsibility of logistics. Network of three of the functional areas of logistics – information, transportation, and inventory can be engineered into a variety of different operational arrangements. Each arrangement will have the potential to achieve a level of customer service at an associated total cost; In essence, these three functions combine to create a system solution for integrated logistics. The final functions of logistics – warehousing, material handling, and packaging – also represent an integral part of an operating solution. However, these functions do not have the independent status of the three previously discussed. Warehousing, material handling and packaging are an integral part of other logistics areas. For example, merchandise typically needs to be warehoused at selected times during the logistics process. Transportation vehicles require material handling for efficient loading and unloading. Finally, the individual products are most efficiently handled when packaged together into shipping cartons or other types of containers. Logistics is viewed as the competency that links an enterprise with its customers and suppliers. Information from and about customer’s flows through the enterprise in the form of sales activity, forecasts, and orders. The whole process is viewed in terms of two interrelated efforts, inventory flow and information flow. Information flow is a key element of logistics operations. Paper-based information flow increases both operating cost and decreases customer satisfaction. Electronic information movement and management provide the opportunity to reduce logistics expense through increased coordination and to enhance service by offering better information to customers. Information flow was often overlooked because it was not viewed as being important to customers. The Council of Logistics Management recognized this change in 1988 when it incorporated â€Å"material, in-process, finished goods and information† into its definition of logistics Transportation is a key activity in the logistics value chain as it moves product through the various stages of production and ultimately to the consumer. The primary functions include product movement, product storage and integration of international production and distribution operations. The major transportation principles involve economies of scale and economies of distance. While effective distribution systems should not be designed to hold inventory for an excessive length of time, there are occasions when inventory storage is justified. While the traditional warehousing role has been to maintain a supply of goods to protect against uncertainty, contemporary warehousing offers many other value-added services. These services can be described in terms of economic and service benefits. Economic benefits include consolidation, break bulk and cross-dock, processing/postponement, and stockpiling. Service benefits include spot stocking, assortment, mixing, product support, and market presence The handling of products is a key to warehouse productivity. Handling activities include receiving, in storage handling, and shipping. Packaging has a significant impact on the cost and productivity of the logistical system. An integrated logistics approach to packaging operations can yield dramatic savings. A marketing mix is a compilation of activities designed to attract customers while simultaneously achieving business objectives. The so-called four P’s -products/service, promotion, price, and place – constitute a generic marketing mix. The key to formulating an effective mix strategy is to integrate resources committed to these activities into an effort that maximizes customer impact. Logistics ensures that customer requirements involved in timing and location of inventory and other related services are satisfactorily performed. Thus, the output of logistical performance is customer service. Logistical competence is a tangible way to attract customers who place a premium on time and place-related performance. Thus the discussion on the objectives, logistics interface with marketing and the system elements brings out the depth of the scope of logistics in the efficient functioning of any business entity. The key to excellent logistics is to achieve integration of both internal and external operations. Such integration requires clear identification concerning the role that logistical competency is expected to play in overall enterprise strategy. Key Factors Involved in efficient and effective and effective logistics system are i. Shippers (users of logistics) i. Suppliers (of logistics services) iii. Carrier (rail, road, sea, water, pipeline) iv. Warehouse Providers v. Freight forwarders vi. Terminal operators (port, stevedores, etc vii. Government (regulator of logistics) Trade-Off Analysis Trade-off analysis is a family of methods by which respondents’ utilities for various product features (usually including price) are measured. In some cases, the utilities are measured indirectly . In this case, respondents are asked to consider alternatives and state a likelihood of purchase or preference for each alternative. As the respondent continues to make choices, a pattern begins to emerge which, through complex multiple regression (and other) techniques, can be broken down and analyzed as to the individual features that contribute most to the purchase likelihood or preference. The importance or influence contributed by the component parts. i. e. , product features, are measured in relative units called â€Å"utils† or â€Å"utility weights. † In other cases, respondents are asked to tell the interviewer directly how important various product features are to them. For example, they might be asked to rate on a cale of 1 to 100 various product features, where 1 means not at all important to their purchase decision and 100 means extremely important to their purchase decision. Trade-off analyses produce several types of information. First, they tell us what features (and levels of features) are most valued by customers. Second, they allow us to model how likely people will be to purchase various configurations of products, the share of revenue these products will most likely receive and what role price plays in the assessment of acceptability. There are four main types of trade-off i. Conjoint ii. Discrete Choice iii. Self-explicated iv. Hybrid One additional model, the MACROModel ©2, will be discussed which does not fall into any of the above four categories. We will discuss each of these trade-off types after reviewing a few basic concepts. Experimental Design, A critical issue in most trade-off methods is the selection of product attributes to be combined together to create each product configuration to be tested. If every possible combination of attributes were included in the study, the study would be said to be using a complete or full factorial design. This is desirable but very seldom practical. For example, if we had 6 attributes with 3 levels each, the total number of possible combinations would be 36 or 729. This is much too large to ask one respondent to rate (and 6 attributes with 3 levels each is untypical modest). When a fractional factorial design is used, only a fraction of the total possible number of product combinations needs to be tested, For the above example, a fractional factorial design could be generated (usually with the help of a computer) that would require perhaps as few as 14 product configurations to be rated. It must be kept in mind, however, that whenever a fractional factorial design is used, some information will be lost. It is the job of the researcher creating the experimental design to ensure that the information being sacrificed (usually higher order interaction effects) does not compromise the project’s ability to answer the research objectives. Bridging Occasionally, even with the most efficient fractional factorial design, we still end up with more products than can be practically accommodated. One possible solution to that problem is bridging3. Bridging allows the attributes to be divided into two or more sets (with some attributes common to all sets). Each set of attributes is treated like its own trade-off study. A fractional factorial design is created for each set of attributes. Respondents are asked to rate or rank two smaller sets of products rather than one large set. The utilities are calculated for each trade-off exercise independently and bridged together to create one final set of utilities. Cognitive and Non-cognitive Behavior Critical to the selection of an appropriate trade-off technique is the issue of which type of behavior, cognitive or non-cognitive, best represents the behavior being measured. Cognitive behavior is behavior that is based on rational, conscious decision-making. Such factors as price, functionality or durability are typically cognitive. Non-cognitive behavior is behavior that is based on less tangible or even less conscious factors such as status, aspiration, insecurity, perceived taste, etc. One might argue that the selection of a life insurance policy, a computer or a water heater are all cognitive decisions and that the selection of a beer, a skin cream or a pair of pants are all non-cognitive. One might also argue that all decisions made by humans are non-cognitive. However, trade-off techniques that employ direct questions (self-explicated and hybrid) all assume that the behavior being modeled is cognitive, because at least some of the product features are being rated in a way that requires both awareness and honesty from the respondent. That is, the respondent must be aware of the degree to which a product feature affects his or her purchase decision and also be willing to admit to that degree of affect. Additionally, any data collection methods that rely on verbal or written descriptions of product features all assume that the behavior being modeled is cognitive, because the process of understanding a verbal or written description is itself a cognitive behavior. Non-cognitive trade-off models should be based on an indirect trade-off technique (conjoint or discrete choice) and data collection that relies on experience rather than language to communicate the product choices. For example, if you are modeling the pant selection process, show respondents a variety of pants that they can see and touch. A consumer may respond to the phrase â€Å"light blue pants† very differently than he or she would to a particular pair of light blue pants. The Four Main Types of Trade-Off Conjoint Conjoint analysis is the original trade-off approach and uses linear models. There is metric conjoint, where respondents monadic ally rate various product configurations, and non-metric conjoint, where respondents rank a set of product configurations. There are also full-profile conjoint, partial-profile conjoint and pair wise conjoint. Full-profile conjoint uses all product features in every product configuration. Partial profile conjoint uses a smaller subset of available product features in the product configurations. Pair wise conjoint requires the respondent to rate their preference for one product over another in a paired comparison. We will only discuss conjoint methods in general in this paper. Conjoint models are simply regression models which are constructed for each individual respondent. Typically, each respondent rates or ranks 20 to 30 product configurations. Each product configuration contains different levels of the product attributes being tested. If the product levels are varied appropriately (the role of experimental design), a regression model can be estimated for each individual, using the product ratings as cases. The coefficients from the model are the utilities or utils. A conjoint approach should be used if a limited number of attributes needs to be tested and utilities need to be estimated for individual respondents, e. g. conjoint-based segmentation. Discrete Choice Discrete choice differs from conjoint in that respondents are shown a set of products from which they pick the one they most want to buy or none if they are not interested in any of the choices shown (rather than rate or rank choices). Respondents are shown several sets of choices sequentially. For each choice set, they are asked to pick one or none. This is in contrast to most forms of con joint where respondents are not allowed to choose none of the product options (MACRO incorporates no-buy choices into its conjoint models). The discrete choice procedure has the advantage of being more like the actual purchase decision process than does any of the data collection methods used in most Conjoint studies. . Also, in conjoint methods, the mathematical models constructed to simulate market behavior are based on linear regression models. In discrete choice, the basis is the multinomial logit model4, which is non-linear. Another analytical difference is that, in conjoint procedures, the utility weights are estimated for each respondent individually. These weights can often provide the basis for a very powerful customer segmentation. Most commercially available forms of discrete choice do not allow this option, although this may be rapidly changing. Further, because discrete choice models are generally estimated at the aggregate level, there exists the possibility that respondents will have strong but opposite preferences to one another. These preferences will effectively cancel each other out when the model is constructed at the aggregate level, yielding the incorrect conclusion that respondents had no strong preference. This is sometimes referred to as the heterogeneity problem. There are two basic forms of discrete choice: classic and exploding data5. Classic discrete choice involves showing a respondent a series of sets of products (as described above). In exploding data discrete choice, respondents are asked to rank order a set of products based on purchase interest (similar to non-metric conjoint). This rank-ordered data set can be transformed into a format suitable for logic model estimation. Exploding data discrete choice has the advantage of more efficient data collection over classic discrete choice. The exploding data approach creates many times ore data points (or cases) than the classic approach with the same interview length. Discrete choice should be used if the primary objective of the study is to estimate market share or price sensitivity, a limited number of attributes need to be tested and the sample population is known to be homogeneous with respect to all product attributes. Self-Explicated Conjoint and discrete choice both determines resp ondent’s utilities indirectly. Self-explicated determines respondents’ utilities directly. With self-explicated scales, respondents are asked directly how important all levels of all attributes are to their purchase interest. Despite its conceptual simplicity, self-explicated models have been shown to be comparable to conjoint models. Self-explicated conjoint analysis requires respondents to reveal their utilities directly. Accordingly, standard questionnaire methods can be used to collect the information. The technique involves the following steps: i. Respondent are informed about all the attributes and their levels, and the respondents are then asked to identify attribute levels that are totally unacceptable to them ii. From among the acceptable levels of the attributes, respondents are asked to indicate which are the most preferred and least preferred levels of each attribute iii. Using the respondents’ most important attribute as an anchor, elicit importance ratings for the other attributes (on a 0 – 100 scale) iv. For each attribute, rate the desirability of the different acceptable levels with the attribute v. Utilities for acceptable attribute levels are obtained by multiplying the importance rating and the desirability ratings. The utilities are then entered into a choice simulator program, and choice information similar to other conjoint programs can be obtained. Self-explicated approaches are useful when there are a large number of attributes and the decision process being modeled is cognitive. Hybrid Hybrid models are models that use a combination of the above techniques. The most famous hybrid model is ACA, Adaptive Conjoint Analysis. Adaptive Conjoint Analysis, in this procedure, a computer program prompts the interviewer with questions. The procedure is as follows: Respondents are first walked through a battery of feature-importance ratings and rankings; second, through a series of pair wise trade-offs of different product configurations. The product configurations shown to any one respondent may not include all of the attributes being tested. The configurations to be paired are based on the answers to the importance questions and rankings asked in the beginning of the interview. Items that are considered of little importance show up in the comparisons less often. Items that are considered of greater importance show up in the comparisons more often. For each pair of products being tested, the respondent is to indicate which product they prefer and the degree to which they prefer it. The software continues prompting with pair wise comparisons of product configurations until enough data has been collected to estimate conjoint utilities for each level of each feature. Since the procedure is adaptive, only a fraction of the total number of possible product combinations is tested. ACA is an approach that is appropriate for building preference models of cognitive behavior with large numbers of attributes. It may not be as useful when price sensitivity, non-cognitive purchase decisions or interaction terms are to be modeled. Cake Method and Logit-Cake Method Other hybrid models include the Cake Method ©8 and the Logit-Cake Method ©9. Both of these models have been developed by MACRO Consulting and were designed to overcome weaknesses in other models. Cake Method The Cake Method © is a unique, proprietary approach to conjoint analysis which offers several advantages over other conjoint methods: A large number of product features (50 or more) can be included in the model First rder interactions can be estimated at both the disaggregate and aggregate levels There is complete control over the experimental design, in a full-profile format Since product combinations are specified, via traditional experimental design, before the interview takes place, physical exhibits can be easily incorporated into the interview The approach involves a specific data collection procedure as well as a u nique analytic protocol. The basic outline of the approach is to: i. Collect self-explicated scales on most of the product attributes tested ii. Conduct a full-profile conjoint exercise with a limited number of product attributes, some of which are common to the self-explication exercise iii. Estimate conjoint utilities for each respondent iv. Bridge self-explicated scales to utility weights The Cake Method should be used when there are a large number of attributes, utilities need to be estimated for individuals, interaction terms need to be measured and the purchase decision is at least partially cognitive. Logit-Cake Method The Logit-Cake Method is a unique, proprietary approach to choice-based trade-off analysis which offers several advantages over other conjoint methods: i. A large number of product features (50 or more) can be included in the model ii. The heterogeneity problem long associated with aggregate logit models is avoided iii. The traditional advantages of logit models over conjoint models are maintained iv. First order interactions can be estimated v. There is complete control over the experimental design, in a full-profile format Since product combinations are specified, via traditional experimental design, before the interview takes place, physical exhibits can be easily incorporated into the interview, The approach involves a specific data collection procedure as well as a unique analytic protocol. The basic outline of the approach is to: i. Collect self-explicated scales on all product attributes tested ii. Conduct a full-profile choice-based exercise with a subset of product attributes iii. Segment the sample based on self-explicated scales iv. Estimate logit models for each respondent cluster v. Bridge self-explicated scales to logit-based utility weights The Logit-Cake Method © should be used when there are a large number of attributes, market share and price need to be estimated, interaction terms need to be measured and the purchase decision is at least partially cognitive. MACRO Model One other model will be discussed in this paper. It does not fall into any of the four main types of trade-off models. In fact, it is not strictly speaking a trade-off model because it does not estimate utilities for any product attributes. The MACRO Model was developed by MACRO Consulting to address a specific research methods need that frequently occurs in new product development and packaging. The MACRO Model is a unique approach to new product screening which offers several advantages over other methods: i. A large number of concepts or packages (50 or more) can be screened at one time ii. Price sensitivity can be calculated for every new product concept screened iii. Price/volume can be individually optimized for every product concept tested iv. New product concepts can be screened and/or completely rank ordered on consumer appeal, market share, unit volume, gross dollar volume or gross profits. The approach involves a specific data collection procedure as well as a unique analytic protocol. The basic outline of the approach is to Sort a stack of new product concepts cards (all new product concepts, each at three price points) into two piles: would definitely buy and would not buy. Note: Stack would contain several existing products as reference have them rank order the would buy pile on a continuum from most want to buy to least want to buy. If the number of items to be sorted is too large for one sorting exercise, the task can be broken down into several smaller exercises, with two or three items common across sorting tasks. After the data are collected for all respondents for the various sorting exercises, a bridging technique can be used to incorporate the data from the separate exercises into one rank ordering of all of the items used in the study. Once the data are combined into one rank order data set for each respondent, the MACRO Model © (a first choice share of preference model) can be constructed. The MACRO Model © should be used when the product is too complex to decompose into attributes, e. g. , packaging graphics, when a large number of highly different products are to be included, e. g. , new product screening, when price sensitivity needs to be measured and when products will be screened based on their revenue potential. Conclusion There are a variety of approaches to trade-off analysis, each with its advantages and disadvantages. Which trade off procedure is best is dependent on the issues and constraints of each marketing problem. The marketing problem should be discussed with a researcher who is knowledgeable in all appropriate methodologies before a research approach is selected. Thus trade-off are necessary. The aspects of trade-off analysis are i. Within One logistics Elements, Trade-off that occurs within a single element ii. Between logistics Element, Trade-off that are possible by considering the impact of one on the other iii. Interface between companies functions, these trade-off are brought about through impact on production. iv. Between the Company other organizations, These trade-off benefit all concerned organizations. Forms of logistics management. Centralized logistics management Centralized logistics management provides that managers that also head other divisions of the company head the logistics operations. This type of management helps avoid internal problems by having a central manager that ultimately decides how logistics and operations are coordinated. Decentralized logistics management Decentralized logistics management is based on the fact that a company needs to have a division that helps control the local-adaptation needs. Dealing with different cultures requires input from the local branch. The managers that deal with the cultural differences on a daily basis normally know what works and what don’t. Outsourcing Outsourcing is the final option for logistics management. When this happens, transportation firms concentrate on logistics, and the company can concentrate on it’s production. There are many cost savings using this type of program, however that lack of control can negatively effect many companies. International logistics requires many different options and requirements to be met in order for a company to operate internationally. It’s like a big puzzle that must be put together, in order for all the goals to be met. As described above, there are many options to consider, and sometimes what appears to be an option really isn’t. It is not difficult to hit a road block, and you must start over with a new plan. Once the logistics plan is in place, you must constantly look for improvements in order to maximize profits and goals. Source for trade off analysis An edited version of this article was published in the February, 1998 issue of Quirk’s Marketing Research Review. i. P. Richard McCullough, MACROModel ©-A Price Sensitivity and Volumetric Approach to New Product Concept Screening, Mountain View, CA, 1995. A MACRO white paper ii. Pierre Francois, Douglas L. MacLachlan and Anja Jacobs, Bridging Designs for Conjoint Analysis: The Issue of Attribute Importance, Leuven, Belgium, 1991-2. An unpublished paper iii. R. Duncan Luce, Individual Choice Behavior: A Theoretical Analysis, New York: John Wiley, 1959 Richard R. Batsell and Abba M. Krieger, Least-Squares Parameter Estimation For Luce-Based Choice Models, June, 1979. iv. Randall G. Chapman and Richard Staelin, Exploiting Rank Ordered Choice Set Data Within the Stochastic Utility Model, Journal of Marketing Research, August, 1982. v. V. Srinivasan, A Conjunctive-Compensatory Approach To The Self-Explication of Multiattributed Preferences, Decision Sciences, 1988, vol. 19. vi. ACA is a product of Sawtooth Software, Inc. , Sequim, WA. Sawtooth Software offers a broad range of trade-off software products. vii. P. Richard McCullough, The Cake Method ©-A Proprietary Hybrid Conjoint Approach to Trade-off, Mountain View, CA, 1997. A MACRO white paper. viii. P. Richard McCullough, The Logit-Cake Method ©-A Proprietary Hybrid Choice-Based Approach to Trade-off, Mountain View, CA, 1997. A MACRO white paper. Questions for self-analyzation: Q1 What is the relation between Marketing and Logistics? Quote a Suitable example to prove the relationship. Q2 What are the subsystems of Logistics Management? Expain the importance of about each system with respect to the importance in business? Q3 What do you understand by Trade-Off Analysis. Explain the various techniques used to do the same. Also explain the importance of trade-off analysis. CHAPTER-3 International Logistics Introduction For the international firm, customer locations and sourcing opportunities are widely dispersed. The firm can attain a strategically advantageous position only if it is able to successfully manage complex networks, consisting of its vendors, suppliers, other third parties, and its customers. Logistics costs comprise between 10% and 30% of the total landed costs of an international order. Thus, international logistics is a competitive tool. Effective international logistics and supply-chain management can produce higher earnings and greater corporate efficiency. Definition How to cite Logistics Management, Papers